I. History
The original inhabitants of Westeros were giants, the Children of the Forest, and other mysterious beings of old legend. The Children of the Forest were small, dark-skinned, elf-like creatures with large, beautiful eyes and mossy hair, often mistaken for being part of the woods themselves. They were deeply tied to nature and magic, carving weirwood trees and worshipping the Old Gods.
Twelve thousand years before Aegon's Conquest, the First Men crossed the land bridge known as the Arm of Dorne—long since shattered—and arrived in Westeros from Essos. They warred with the Children for centuries until a pact was finally forged at the Isle of Faces, ending their bloody conflict. This marked the beginning of the Age of the Dawn.
The descendants of the First Men settled much of Westeros, including the North and parts of the Riverlands. The noble houses of Stark, Blackwood, Bracken, and Royce still trace their bloodlines to these early settlers. After two thousand years of peace, eight thousand years before the Conquest, came the Long Night: a brutal winter that brought the first invasion of the White Walkers, who descended from the farthest north. The First Men and the Children of the Forest united once more to defeat them.
Bran the Builder, an ancient Stark said to be part-myth, built Winterfell and helped raise the Wall to defend the realms of men. Around the same time, the Night's Watch was founded to hold back the horrors of the far north.
Roughly six thousand years before the Conquest, the Andals crossed the Narrow Sea, driven by their faith in the Seven. They overran much of the southern continent, bringing steel weapons and the Faith of the Seven. Only the North remained unconquered, holding fast to the Old Gods. The kingdoms formed by the Andals, including the Stormlands, the Reach, the Vale, the Westerlands, the Riverlands, and Dorne, were later collectively referred to as the Seven Kingdoms.
About five thousand years before the Conquest, across the Narrow Sea, the Valyrians emerged in Essos, discovering dragons in the Fourteen Flames of Valyria. They became dragonlords and founded the Valyrian Freehold, eventually dominating much of Essos. Two hundred years before the Conquest, they established Dragonstone as their outpost on Westeros' eastern coast.
Roughly one hundred years before the Conquest, the Targaryens—one of the lesser Valyrian families—relocated to Dragonstone. Aenar Targaryen fled Valyria after his daughter Daenys foresaw the Doom, a cataclysmic eruption that annihilated Valyria and most of the dragons and their riders.
In 2 BC (Before Conquest), Aegon Targaryen and his sisters, Visenya and Rhaenys, launched their conquest of Westeros from Dragonstone. Landing at the mouth of the Blackwater Rush, he established a camp that later became King's Landing. Over two years, Aegon defeated or submitted six of the seven kingdoms—only Dorne resisted his rule. In 1 AC (After Conquest), Aegon was crowned at the Starry Sept in Oldtown, marking the start of the Targaryen Dynasty.
During his 37-year reign, Aegon I brought lasting unification and forged the Iron Throne from the swords of his enemies. After his death, his son Aenys I took the throne but was viewed as weak. His brother Maegor I, known as Maegor the Cruel, usurped the throne and brutally crushed religious uprisings by the Faith Militant, who opposed Targaryen incest.
After Maegor's death, Jaehaerys I, son of Aenys, brought peace and reformed laws, earning the title "The Conciliator." He ruled for over fifty years, and his reign marked the dynasty's golden age. He disbanded the Faith Militant permanently and codified the laws of the realm.
Under Viserys I, the Targaryen family grew in power, but upon his death, a succession dispute between Rhaenyra Targaryen and her half-brother Aegon II led to the Dance of the Dragons. This brutal civil war devastated the realm and nearly drove dragons to extinction.
Aegon II died shortly after the war, and Rhaenyra's son became Aegon III, known as the "Dragonbane." The last of the dragons died during his reign, and the Targaryens slowly lost their magical power.
Daeron I, the Young Dragon, briefly conquered Dorne, but lost it soon after. Baelor the Blessed, his successor, sought peace through marriage alliances and extreme piety, even locking his sisters in the Red Keep to preserve their virtue.
Viserys II ruled for just a year before passing the throne to his son Aegon IV, called the Unworthy. His reckless behavior and legitimization of his many bastards—including Daemon Blackfyre—laid the seeds for civil war.
Under Daeron II, the Targaryens diplomatically united with Dorne through marriage. However, tensions over succession and favoritism of Dornish customs led to the First Blackfyre Rebellion, led by Daemon Blackfyre and crushed at the Battle of the Redgrass Field by Brynden "Bloodraven" Rivers.
Subsequent kings, including Aerys I and Maekar I, ruled during times of instability and internal strife. Maekar's death without a clear heir brought Aegon V, once a squire known as "Egg," to the throne. His idealism and reforms earned him the love of the people, but his attempt to hatch dragon eggs led to the Tragedy at Summerhall, where he, Duncan the Tall, and others perished.
Jaehaerys II ruled briefly, and his son, Aerys II, succeeded him. Early in his reign, Aerys II, known later as the Mad King, ruled wisely with Tywin Lannister as his Hand. But after being imprisoned during the Defiance of Duskendale, he descended into paranoia and madness, burning enemies alive and isolating himself.
His son, Rhaegar, was seen as the hope of the dynasty, but his mysterious relationship with Lyanna Stark led to Robert's Rebellion in 282 AC. After Rhaegar's death at the Trident, Robert Baratheon claimed the throne in 283 AC, with Eddard Stark helping to lift the siege at Storm's End and later fighting at the Tower of Joy, where Lyanna died. The war formally ended in 284 AC.
As Eddard Stark once said, "How can you govern a realm with a man like Robert?"
II. Geography
Now for some context on geography. Officially, Westeros is roughly the size of South America, which spans about 17 million square kilometers. However, the inhabited and politically active regions—from the North to Dorne—constitute a smaller, more condensed area.
The North takes up roughly a third to half of the continent, dominated by harsh winters and sparsely populated territories. If we subtract the frozen and mountainous terrain, the core political and social zone of Westeros measures closer to 9 million square kilometers.
Population estimates in the books and show are vague, but based on indirect references (like army sizes and food supplies), scholars estimate Westeros holds about 20 million people total.
This gives us a population density that's incredibly low by modern standards, but roughly equivalent to China's Three Kingdoms period. Just enough people to sustain a feudal economy, but not enough to prevent wide tracts of wilderness, danger, and lawless roads between keeps and castles.
The Seven Kingdoms are varied in climate, culture, and terrain:
• The North is cold, rugged, and forested, ruled by House Stark.
• The Riverlands, fertile and often war-torn, are controlled from Riverrun.
• The Vale is mountainous and isolated, home to House Arryn.
• The Stormlands, coastal and storm-battered, are ruled from Storm's End.
• The Reach is the most populous and fertile, centered at Highgarden.
• The Westerlands, rich in gold, are controlled by House Lannister of Casterly Rock.
• The Crownlands, surrounding King's Landing, are directly ruled by the king.
• Finally, Dorne, dry and hot, is ruled from Sunspear by House Martell.
Despite these differences, all Seven Kingdoms were drawn under one Iron Throne by dragons, blood, and fire—and remain bound by uneasy peace, historic grievances, and the lingering question of legacy.
But weapons and armor in Game of Thrones generally reflect the late medieval period of Western Europe, particularly from the 14th to 15th century, while daily life and domestic items often echo the early Renaissance, spanning from the late 1400s to early 1500s. The world of Westeros and Essos, however, is a deliberate anachronism—one that borrows across centuries and cultures, mixing elements for tone rather than historical accuracy.
There are many visual and cultural mashups throughout the books and especially the TV series, often without strict chronological logic. Take for example the square-visored helmet worn by Ser Gregor Clegane (The Mountain) during the tournament held in Season 1 for Eddard Stark's appointment as Hand of the King. That particular helmet design—with flat planes, angular features, and limited eye slits—evokes the great helm or sugarloaf helm worn during the High to Late Middle Ages, particularly in the 13th century Crusades, such as those leading up to or immediately after the fall of Acre in 1291. These designs had already faded from use by the late 1400s, showing how the show merges eras stylistically.
Now, let's move into a serious geographical overview of the known world in Game of Thrones. There are four continents: Westeros, Essos, Sothoryos, and a mysterious landmass sometimes referred to by fans as Ulthos—located in the far southeast, and barely mentioned in either the books or the show. Its name is never spoken in the show, and very little is known about it canonically.
The geographical layout draws clear inspiration from our own world: Westeros resembles the British Isles, Essos reflects Eurasia, and Sothoryos is strongly reminiscent of Africa—particularly its rainforests and unexplored, disease-ridden southern reaches. Ulthos, if counted, could represent East Asia or Oceania, but again, we are deep in speculative territory.
Let's begin with the massive continent of Essos, which lies east of Westeros, across the Narrow Sea. This sea serves as the primary maritime link between the two continents. Along its western edge lie the Nine Free Cities: Braavos, Pentos, Myr, Lys, Tyrosh, Volantis, Lorath, Norvos, and Qohor.
Among them, Braavos and Volantis are the most powerful. Braavos, never a colony of Valyria, is modeled after Venice, with its canal-lined streets, Titan statue, and mercantile dominance. Volantis, on the other hand, is the oldest Valyrian colony and retains a rigid caste system and political legacy of the Freehold. The second tier includes Pentos, Myr, Lys, and Tyrosh, known for trade, mercenaries, and fine goods. Norvos, Qohor, and Lorath rank lower in visibility and influence. Norvos and Qohor are inland and have no fleets, limiting their maritime reach. Lorath is an island city with minimal impact on the main events of the show—its presence barely acknowledged on-screen—likely a placeholder Martin included to round out the map.
Most of the Free Cities sit between the coast and the western mountains of Essos. With the exception of Braavos, all were once Valyrian colonies, cultural remnants of a fallen empire. Beyond these mountains, eastward, stretches the Dothraki Sea, a vast grassland that mirrors the Eurasian Steppe, home to the Dothraki horselords—clearly inspired by the Mongol Empire. Their customs, mobility, and war tactics reflect nomadic traditions rooted in Central Asia.
South of the Dothraki Sea lies Slaver's Bay, featuring Astapor, Yunkai, and Meereen. These cities are infamous for their pyramid architecture, slave markets, and the ever-present symbol of the Harpy. They rise atop the ruins of the Ghiscar Empire, a civilization analogous to Ancient Egypt, but their slave economies also satirize European colonial trade practices, especially the transatlantic slave trade.
Further east lies Lhazar, a peaceful, agrarian region south of the Dothraki Sea. It is populated by Lhazareen, known for their pacifism and simple worship, often raided by the Dothraki. The show references it in Season 1, where Drogo burns a village, and Daenerys saves the people, sparking a rift with her khalasar.
To the west of Slaver's Bay lies Valyria, once the epicenter of the dragonlords' power. In the show, it appears as smoking ruins, famously glimpsed in Season 5 when Tyrion and Jorah sail past the haunted ruins on their way to Meereen. Once home to magic, dragons, and sprawling cities, Valyria was obliterated in the Doom, leaving behind only Dragonstone and scattered remnants.
Farther south on the map, Qarth lies at a crossroads between east and west. This wealthy city-state, ruled by factions like the Thirteen, Spice Guild, and Tourmaline Brotherhood, appeared in Season 2. Zaro Xhoan Daxos, a merchant prince, welcomes Daenerys there. His palace is shown to be lavish—almost absurdly so—contrasting with Illyrio Mopatis' estate in Pentos, which seems modest by comparison. According to lore, Qarth's merchant fleets number over three thousand combined, dwarfing the Royal Fleet of Westeros, which consists of around 200 ships. The Redwyne Fleet contributes another 200, and the Ironborn command roughly 100 ships—together, barely matching the naval capacity of one of Qarth's guilds.
Now we turn to Westeros, the primary setting of the TV series. From north to south, the regions are: the North, the Riverlands, the Vale, the Westerlands, the Reach, the Stormlands, the Crownlands, and Dorne.
Using the framework suggested by historian Li Tiefu, the key geographical features can be grouped as follows:
• Five major rivers: the Trident, Blackwater Rush, White Knife, Mander, and Greenblood.
• Five major mountain passes: Moat Cailin (North), Golden Tooth (West), Bloody Gate (Vale), Boneway and Prince's Pass (Dorne).
• Five major roads: Kingsroad, Roseroad, Goldroad, River Road, and Coastal Road.
• Five island chains: Dragonstone, Iron Islands, Shield Islands, Three Sisters, and the Stepstones.
• Four notable mountain ranges: Mountains of the Moon, Red Mountains, Frostfangs, and Gold Road Hills.
• Three major forests: the Wolfswood, the Kingswood, and Crakehall's Forest.
• Five most strategic castles: Storm's End, Casterly Rock, The Eyrie, Harrenhal, and The Twins.
These features may seem abstract, so let's use a metaphor for better understanding. Imagine Westeros as a fantasy version of China during the Three Kingdoms era. This helps contextualize the cultural and regional identities within the Seven Kingdoms.
• The Riverlands resemble the Central Plains—fertile, contested, but smaller in area.
• The Vale, with its enclosed geography and rich agriculture, mirrors Shandong, flanked by mountains and open to trade.
• The Westerlands, rich in minerals but less in farming, reflect a south-shifted version of the Three Qins.
• The Reach combines fertile land, dense population, and culture—like a union of the Nanyang Basin, Jingxiang Plain, and Sui-Zao Corridor.
• The Crownlands around King's Landing are akin to the Songjiang estuary region, symbolizing imperial administration.
• The Stormlands, rugged and storm-lashed, parallel the Yue State region, a blend of Kuaiji Mountains and southeastern hills.
• Dorne can be viewed as a vast frontier region, sparsely populated but fiercely autonomous—politically important and ethnically distinct.
• The North is like the ancient lands of Yan and Zhao—harsh, cold, and honor-bound. Its people are known for solemnity and oaths—"the North remembers" isn't just a saying.
Of course, these analogies aren't exact—they're just cultural mirrors. But they do help contextualize the dynamics of the Seven Kingdoms.
And since we're on the topic of the Three Kingdoms, the protagonist's positioning becomes clear: he has Cao Cao's strategic central geography, but Liu Bei's moral character and ability to inspire loyalty. A warlord with both brains and benevolence—perhaps the only kind who can survive in a world as brutal as Westeros.
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